The Story Of Mankind - Part 3

This is part 3 of the story of mankind by Hendrik van Loon.

The Sumerians The Sumerian nail writers,

Whose clay tablets tell us the story of Assyria and Babylonia,

The great Semitic melting pot.

The 15th century was an age of great discoveries.

Scientists tried to find a way to the island of Cathay,

And stumbled upon a new and unsuspected continent.

An Austrian bishop equipped an expedition which was to travel eastward and find the home of the Grand Duke of Muscovy.

A voyage which led to complete failure,

For Moscow was not visited by a western man until a generation later.

Meanwhile,

A certain Venetian by the name of Barbero had explored the ruins of western Asia and had brought back reports of a most curious language which he had found carved in the rocks of the temple of Shiraz and engraved upon endless pieces of baked clay.

But Europe was busy with many other things.

It was not until the end of the 18th century that the first cuneiform inscriptions,

So called because the letters were wedge-shaped and wedge is called cuneus in Latin,

Were brought to Europe by a Danish surveyor named Niburg.

Then it took 30 years before a patient German schoolmaster by the name of Grothend had deciphered the first four letters,

The D,

The A,

The R,

And the SH,

The name of the Persian king Darius.

And another 20 years had to go by until a British officer,

Henry Rawlson,

Who found the famous inscription of Behistun,

Gave us a workable key to the nail-writing of western Asia.

Compared to the problem of deciphering these nail-writings,

The job of Champolian had been an easy one.

The Egyptians used pictures,

But the Sumerians,

The earliest inhabitants of Mesopotamia,

Who had hit upon the idea of scratching their words in tablets of clay,

Had discarded pictures entirely,

And had evolved a system of V-shaped figures which showed little connections with the pictures out of which they had been developed.

The story of Mesopotamia is one of endless warfare and conquest.

Most of the Sumerians came from the north.

They were a white people who had lived in the mountains.

They had been accustomed to worship their gods on the top of hills.

After they had entered a plain,

They constructed artificial little hills on top of which they built their altars.

They did not know how to build stairs,

And they therefore surrounded their towers with sloping galleries.

Our engineers have borrowed this idea.

As you may see in our big railroad stations,

We're sending galleries led from one floor to another.

We may have borrowed other ideas from the Sumerians,

But we do not know it.

The Sumerians were entirely absorbed by those races that entered a fertile valley at a later date.

Their towers,

However,

Still stand the Mr.

Rumens of Mesopotamia.

The Jews saw them when they went into exile in the land of Babylon,

And they called them Towers of Bebeli,

Or Towers of Babel.

In the 4th century before our era,

The Sumerians had entered Mesopotamia.

They were soon afterwards overpowered by the Akkadians,

One of the many tribes from the desert of Arabia,

Who speak a common dialect and who are known as the Semites,

Because in the olden days,

People believed them to be the direct descendants of Shem,

One of the three sons of Noah.

A thousand years later,

The Akkadians were forced to submit to the rule of the Amorites,

Another Semitic desert tribe,

Whose great king Hammurabi built himself a magnificent palace in the holy city of Babylon,

And who gave his people a set of laws which made the Babylonian state the best administered empire of the ancient world.

Next the Hittites,

Whom you will also meet in the Old Testament,

Overran the fertile valley and destroyed whatever they could not carry away.

They in turn were vanquished by the followers of the great desert god,

Ashur,

Who called themselves Assyrians,

And who made the city of Nineveh,

The center of a vast and terrible empire which conquered all of western Asia and Egypt,

And gathered taxes from countless subject races until the end of the 7th century before the birth of Christ,

When the Chaldeans,

Also a Semitic tribe,

Reestablished Babylon and made that city the most important capital of that day.

Nebuchadnezzar,

The best known of their kings,

Encouraged the study of science,

And our modern knowledge of astronomy and mathematics is all based upon certain first principles which were discovered by the Chaldeans.

In the year 538 BC,

A crude tribe of Persian shepherds invaded this old land and overthrew the empire of the Chaldeans.

Two hundred years later,

They in turn were overthrown by Alexander the Great,

Who turned the fertile valley,

The old melting pot of so many Semitic races,

Into a Greek province.

Next came the Romans,

And after the Romans,

The Turks,

And Mesopotamia,

The second center of the world civilization,

Became a vast wilderness where huge mounds of earth told the story of ancient glory.

Moses.

The story of Moses,

The leader of the Jewish people.

Sometime during the 20th century before our era,

A small and unimportant tribe of Semitic shepherds had left its old home,

Which was situated in the land of Ur on the mouth of the Euphrates,

And had tried to find new pastures within the domain of the kings of Babylonia.

They had been driven away by the royal soldiers,

And they had moved westward,

Looking for a little piece of unoccupied territory where they might set up their tents.

This tribe of shepherds was known as the Hebrews,

Or as we call them,

The Jews.

They had wandered far and wide,

And after many years of dreary peregrinations,

They had been given shelter in Egypt.

Far more than five centuries they had dwelt among the Egyptians,

And when their adopted country had been overrun by the Hyksos Marauders,

As I told you in the story of Egypt,

They had managed to make themselves useful to the foreign invader,

And had been left in the undisturbed possession of their grazing fields.

But after a long war of independence,

The Egyptians had driven the Hyksos out of the valley of the Nile,

And then the Jews had come upon evil times,

For they had been degraded the rank of common slaves,

And they had been forced to work on the royal roads and on the pyramids.

And as the frontiers were guarded by the Egyptian soldiers,

It had been impossible for the Jews to escape.

After many years of suffering,

They were saved from their miserable fate by a young Jew called Moses,

Who for a long time had dwelt in the desert,

And there had learned to appreciate the simple virtues of his earliest ancestors,

Who had kept away from cities and city life,

And had refused to let themselves be corrupted by the ease and the luxury of a foreign civilization.

Moses decided to bring his people back to a love of the ways of the Patriarchs.

He succeeded in evading the Egyptian troops that were sent after him,

And led his fellow tribesmen into the heart of the plain at the foot of Mount Sinai.

During his long and lonely life in the desert,

He had learned to revere the strength of the great god of the thunder and the storm,

Who ruled the high heavens,

And upon whom the shepherds depended for life and light and breath.

This god,

One of the many divinities who were widely worshipped in Western Asia,

Was called Jehovah.

And through the teaching of Moses,

He became the sole master of the Hebrew race.

One day,

Moses disappeared from the camp of the Jews.

It was whispered that he had gone away carrying two tablets of rough hewn stone.

That afternoon,

The top of the mountain was lost to sight,

The darkness of a terrible storm hit it from the eye of man.

But when Moses returned,

Behold,

There stood engraved upon the tablets the words which Jehovah had spoken unto the people of Israel amidst the crash of his thunder and the blinding flashes of his lightning.

And from that moment,

Jehovah was recognized by all the Jews as the highest master of their fate,

The only true god,

Who had taught them how to live holy lives when he bade them to follow the wise lessons of his ten commandments.

They followed Moses when he bade them continue their journey through the desert.

They obeyed him when he told them what to eat and drink,

And what to avoid that they might keep well in the hot climate.

And finally,

After many years of wandering,

They came to a land which seemed pleasant and prosperous.

It was called Palestine,

Which means the country of the Pilistu,

The Philistines,

A small tribe of Cretans who had settled along the coast after they had been driven away from their own island.

Unfortunately,

The mainland,

Palestine,

Was already inhabited by another Semitic race,

Called the Canaanites,

But the Jews forced their way into the valley and built themselves cities and constructed a mighty temple in a town which they named Jerusalem,

The home of peace.

As for Moses,

He was no longer the leader of his people.

He had been allowed to see the mountain ridges of Palestine from afar.

Then he had closed his starred eyes for all time.

He had worked faithfully and hard to please Jehovah.

Not only had he gotten his brethren out of foreign slavery into the free and independent life of a new home,

But he had also made the Jews the first of all nations to worship a single God.

The Phoenicians The Phoenicians who gave us our alphabet.

The Phoenicians,

Who were the neighbors of the Jews,

Were a Semitic tribe which at a very early age had settled along the shores of the Mediterranean.

They had built themselves two well-fortified towns,

Tyre and Sidon,

And within a short time they had gained a monopoly of the trade of the western seas.

Their ships went regularly to Greece and Italy and Spain,

And they even ventured beyond the Straits of Gibraltar to visit the Sili Islands where they could buy tin.

Wherever they went they built themselves small trading stations,

Which they called colonies.

Many of these were the origin of modern cities,

Such as Cadiz and Marseille.

They bought and sold whatever promised to bring them a good profit.

They were not troubled by a conscience.

If we are to believe all their neighbors,

They did not know what the words honesty or integrity meant.

They regarded a well-filled treasure chest the highest ideal of all good citizens.

Indeed,

They were very unpleasant people and did not have a single friend.

Nevertheless,

They have rendered all coming generations one service of the greatest possible value.

They gave us our alphabet.

The Phoenicians had been familiar with the art of writing invented by the Sumerians,

But they regarded those pot hooks as a clumsy waste of time.

They were practical businessmen and could not spend hours engraving two or three letters.

They set to work and invented a new system of writing,

Which was greatly superior to the old one.

They borrowed a few pictures from the Egyptians,

And they simplified a number of the wedge-shaped figures of the Sumerians.

They sacrificed the pretty looks of the older system for the advantage of speed,

And they reduced a thousand of different images to a short and handy alphabet of twenty-two letters.

In due course of time,

This alphabet traveled across the Aegean Sea and entered Greece.

The Greeks added a few letters of their own,

And carried the improved system to Italy.

The Romans modified the figures somewhat,

And in turn taught them the wild barbarians of Western Europe.

Those wild barbarians were our own ancestors,

And that is the reason why this book is written in characters that are of Phoenician origins,

And not in the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians or the nailscript of the Sumerians.

The Indo-Europeans The Indo-European Persians conquered the Semitic and the Egyptian world.

The world of Egypt and Babylon and Assyria and Phoenicia had existed almost thirty centuries,

And the venerable races of the fertile valley were getting old and tired.

Their doom was sealed when a new and more energetic race appeared upon the horizon.

We call this race the Indo-European race,

Because it conquered not only Europe,

But also made itself the ruling class in the country which is now known as British India.

These Indo-Europeans were white men like the Semites,

But they spoke a different language,

Which was regarded as the common ancestor of all European tongues,

With the exception of Hungarian and Finnish,

And the Basque dialects of northern Spain.

When we first hear of them,

They had been living along the shores of the Caspian Sea for many centuries,

But one day they had packed their tents and they had wandered forth in search of a new home.

Some of them had moved into the mountains of Central Asia,

And for many centuries they had lived among the peaks which surrounded the plateau of Iran,

And that is why we call them Aryans.

Others had followed the setting sun,

And they had taken possession of the plains of Europe,

As I shall tell you when I give you the story of Greece and Rome.

For the moment we must follow the Aryans.

Under the leadership of Zarathustra,

Or Zarastar,

Who was their great teacher,

Many of them had left their mountain homes to follow the swiftly flowing Indus River on its way to the sea.

Others had preferred to stay among the hills of western Asia,

And there they had founded the half-independent communities of the Medes and the Persians,

Two people whose names you have copied from the Old Greek history books.

In the 7th century before the birth of Christ,

The Medes had established a kingdom of their own called Media.

But this perished when Cyrus,

The chief of a clan known as the Ansham,

Made himself king of all the Persian tribes and started upon a career of conquest which soon made him and his children the undisputed masters of the whole of western Asia and of Egypt.

Indeed,

With such energy did these Indo-European Persians push their triumphant campaigns in the west that they soon found themselves in serious difficulties with certain other Indo-European tribes which centuries before had moved into Europe and had taken possession of the Greek peninsula and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

These difficulties led to the three famous wars between Greece and Persia,

During which King Darius and King Xerxes of Persia invaded the northern part of the peninsula.

They ravaged the lands of the Greek and tried very hard to get a foothold upon the European continent,

But in this they did not succeed.

The navy of Athens proved unconquerable.

By cutting off the lines of supplies of the Persian armies,

The Greek sailors invariably forced the Asiatic rulers to return to their base.

It was the first encounter between Asia,

The ancient teacher,

And Europe,

The younger and eager pupil.

A great many of the other chapters of this book will tell you how the struggle between east and west has continued until this very day.

The Aegean Sea The people of the Aegean Sea carry the civilization of Old Asia into the wilderness of Europe.

When Heinrich Schliemann was a little boy,

His father told him the story of Troy.

He liked that story better than anything else he had ever heard,

And he made up his mind that as soon as he was big enough to leave home,

He would travel to Greece and find Troy.

That he was the son of a poor country person in Meckelburg village did not bother him.

He knew that he would need money,

But he decided to gather a fortune first and do the digging afterwards.

As a matter of fact,

He managed to get a large fortune within a very short time,

And as soon as he had enough money to equip an expedition,

He went to the northwest corner of Asia Minor,

Where he supposed that Troy had been situated.

In that particular nook of Old Asia Minor stood a high mound covered with grain fields.

According to tradition,

It had been the home of Priamus,

The king of Troy.

Schliemann,

Whose enthusiasm was somewhat greater than his knowledge,

Wasted no time in preliminary explorations.

At once he began to dig,

And he dug with such zeal and such speed that his trench went straight through the heart of the city for which he was looking,

And carried him to the ruins of another buried town,

Which was at least a thousand years older than the Troy of which Homer had written.

Then something very interesting occurred.

If Schliemann had found a few polished stone hammers and perhaps a few pieces of crude pottery,

No one would have been surprised.

Instead of discovering such objects,

Which people had generally associated with a prehistoric man who had lived in these regions before the coming of the Greeks,

Schliemann found beautiful statuettes and very costly jewelry and ornamented vases of a pattern that was unknown to the Greeks.

He ventured the suggestion that fully ten centuries before the Great Trojan War,

The coast of the Aegean had been inhabited by a mysterious race of men,

Who in many ways had been the superiors of the wild Greek tribes,

Who had invaded their country and had destroyed their civilization or absorbed it until it had lost all trace of originality.

And this proved to be the case.

In the late seventies of the last century,

Schliemann visited the ruins of Mycenae,

Ruins which were so old that Roman guidebooks marveled at the antiquity.

There again,

Beneath the flat steps of stones of a small round enclosure,

Schliemann stumbled upon a wonderful treasure trove,

Which had been left behind by those mysterious people who had covered the Greek coast with their cities and who had built walls so big and so heavy and so strong that the Greeks called them the Warke of the Titans,

Whose godlike giants who in very olden days had used to play ball with the mountain peaks.

A very careful study of these many relics had done away with some of the romantic features of the story.

The makers of these early works of art and the builders of these strange fortresses were no sorcerers,

But simple sailors and traders.

They had lived in Crete,

And on the many islands of the Aegean Sea.

They had been hardy mariners,

And they had turned the Aegean into a center of commerce for the exchange of goods between the highly civilized east and the slowly developing wilderness of the European mainland.

For more than a thousand years,

They had maintained an island empire which had developed a very high form of art.

Indeed,

Their most important city,

Knossos,

On the north and east part of Crete,

Had been entirely modern in its insistence upon hygiene and comfort.

The palace had been properly drained,

And the houses had been provided with stoves,

And the Knossians had been the first people to make a daily use of the Hitherto unknown bathtub.

The palace of the king had been famous for its winding staircases and its large banqueting hall.

The cellars underneath this palace,

Where the wine and the grain and the olive oil were stored,

Had been so vast and had so greatly impressed the first Greek visitors that they had given rise to the story of the labyrinth.

The name which we give to a structure with so many complicated passages that it is almost impossible to find our way out,

Once the front door has closed upon our frightened selves.

But what finally became of this great Aegan empire,

And what caused its sudden downfall?

That I cannot tell.

The Cretans were familiar with the art of writing,

But no one has yet been able to decipher their inscriptions.

Their history,

Therefore,

Is unknown to us.

We have to reconstruct the record of their adventures from the ruins which the Aegans have left behind.

These ruins make it clear that the Aegan world was suddenly conquered by a less civilized race,

Which has recently come from the northern plains of Europe.

Unless we are very much mistaken,

The savages who were responsible for the destruction of the Cretan and the Aegan civilization were none other than certain tribes of wandering shepherds who had just taken possession of the rocky peninsula between the Adriatic and the Aegan seas.

And who are known to us as Greeks?