Welcome to the I Can't Sleep Podcast,
Where I help you drift off one fact at a time.
I'm your host Benjamin Boster,
And today's episode is about alchemy.
Alchemy,
From the Arabic word al-kimya,
Is an ancient branch of natural philosophy,
A philosophical and proto-scientific tradition that was historically practiced in China,
India,
The Muslim world,
And Europe.
In its western form,
Alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudographical texts written in Greco-Roman Egypt during the first few centuries AD.
Greek-speaking alchemists often referred to their craft as the art,
Tekne,
Or knowledge,
Episteme,
And it was often characterized as mystic,
Mystici,
Sacred,
Hira,
Or divine,
Theia.
Alchemists attempted to purify,
Mature,
And perfect certain materials.
Common aims were Chrysepoia,
The transmutation of base metals,
E.
G.
Lead,
Into noble metals,
Particularly gold.
The creation of an elixir of immortality,
And the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease.
The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus.
Great work.
The concept of creating the Philosopher's Stone was variously connected with all of these projects.
Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques,
Theories,
And terms,
Some of which are still in use today.
They did not abandon the ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements.
And they tended to guard their work in secrecy,
Often making use of ciphers and cryptic symbolism.
In Europe,
The 12th century translations of medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy.
This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of early modern science,
Particularly chemistry and medicine.
Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects.
Despite criticisms by scholars such as Éric J.
Holmyard and Marie-Louise Faune-France that they should be understood as complementary,
The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences,
Who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry,
Medicine,
And charlatanism,
And the philosophical and religious context in which these events occurred.
The latter interest historians of esotericism,
Psychologists,
And some philosophers and spiritualists.
The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts.
The word alchemy comes from Old French alchemy,
Used in Medieval Latin as alchemia.
This name was itself adopted from the Arabic word alchemia.
The Arabic alchemia,
In turn,
Was a borrowing of the late Greek term,
Chemia.
Also spelled K-H-U-M-E-I-A,
Kumeya,
And K-H-E-M-I-A,
With A-L being the Arabic definite article,
The.
Together this association can be interpreted as the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form.
Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term.
The first was proposed by Zosimus of Panopolis,
3rd to 4th centuries,
Who derived it from the name of a book,
The Khemu.
Hermann Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from kouma,
Used to describe metallic objects formed by casting.
Others trace its roots to the Egyptian name Kimi,
Meaning black earth,
Which refers to the fertile and oriferous soil of the Nile Valley.
According to the Egyptologist Wallace Budge,
The Arabic word al-kimya actually means the Egyptian science,
Borrowing from the Coptic word for Egypt,
Kimi,
Or its equivalent in the medieval Boheric dialect of Coptic,
K-h-e-m-e,
Kimi.
This Coptic word derives from the Demotic,
Kemi,
Itself from the Ancient Egyptian,
Kempt.
The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the color black.
Egypt was the black land,
By contrast with the red land,
The surrounding desert.
Alchemy comprises a plurality of philosophical traditions extending across approximately four millennia and spanning three continents.
The marked tendency of these traditions toward esoteric and highly symbolic modes of expression renders it difficult to reconstruct their patterns of mutual influence and genealogical relationships.
Three major strands exist,
Which appear to be mostly independent,
At least in their early stages.
Chinese alchemy,
Centered in China,
Indian alchemy,
Rasayana,
Centered on the Indian subcontinent,
And Western alchemy,
Which occurred around the Mediterranean basin,
And whose center shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt to the Muslim world,
And finally Medieval Europe.
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the dharmic faiths.
In contrast,
Western alchemy developed its philosophical system,
Mostly independent of,
But influenced by various Western religions.
It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin,
Or to what extent they influenced each other.
The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to Hellenistic Egypt,
Where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge.
And retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.
Following the work of André-Jean Festigier,
Modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art,
Greek philosophy,
And different religious traditions.
Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus.
The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis,
The earliest historically attested author florid circa 300,
Can help in situating the other authors.
Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors,
Such as Mary the Jewess,
Pseudo-Democritus,
And Agatha Diamond.
But very little is known about any of these authors.
The most complete of their works,
The Four Books of Pseudodemocritus,
Were probably written in the first century AD.
The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus.
His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes.
Hermes and his caduceus or serpent staff were among alchemy's principal symbols.
According to Clement of Alexandria,
He wrote what were called the Forty-Two Books of Hermes,
Covering all fields of knowledge.
The Hermetica are a compendium of texts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus.
Many of them have close historical connections with Western alchemical philosophy and practice.
By modern convention,
The Hermetica is usually subdivided into two categories,
The technical and religio-philosophical Hermetica.
The technical Hermetica deals with alchemy,
Astrology,
Medicine,
Pharmacology,
And magic.
Its oldest parts were written in Greek and may go back as far as the 2nd or 3rd century BC.
Many of the texts in the technical Hermetica were later translated,
First into Arabic and then into Latin,
Often being extensively revised and expanded throughout the centuries.
Some of them were also originally written in Arabic.
In other cases,
Their status as an original work or translation remains unclear.
These Arabic and Latin Hermetic texts were widely copied through the Middle Ages.
The most famous of these texts is the Emerald Tablet,
Also known as the Smaragdan Table or the Tabula Smaragdina,
A compact of cryptic text.
The earliest known versions of it are four Arabic recensions,
Preserved in mystical and alchemical treatises between the 8th and 10th centuries AD,
Chiefly The Secret of Creation and The Secret of Secrets.
From the 12th century onward,
Latin translations,
Most notably the widespread so-called Vulgate,
Not to be confused with the late 4th century Latin translation of the Tanakh and Christian New Testament,
Known as the Vulgate,
Introduced the Emerald Tablet to Europe,
Where it attracted great scholarly interest.
Medieval commentators,
Such as Ortolanus,
Interpreted it as a foundational text of alchemical instructions for producing the philosopher's stone and making gold.
The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy,
Extending back to 3500 BC.
Many writings were lost when the Roman Emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria,
AD 292.
Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived.
Most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leiden papyrus X.
Dating from A.
D.
250-300,
They contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones,
Cleaning and fabricating pearls,
And manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.
These writings lack the mystical,
Philosophical elements of alchemy,
But do contain the works of Bolas of Mendes,
Or Pseudodemocritus,
Which align these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements.
Between the time of Bolus and Zosimus,
A change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a hermetic art.
Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism,
Platonism,
Stoicism,
And Gnosticism that formed the origin of alchemy's character.
An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy,
Originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle,
Was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements,
Earth,
Air,
Wind and fire.
According to Aristotle,
Each element had a sphere to which it belonged,
And to which it would return if left undisturbed.
The four elements of the Grieg were mostly qualitative aspects of matter,
Rather than the modern quantitative elements,
Natures,
According to Titus Burkhardt.
Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms,
Such as Moses of Alexandria,
Isis,
Cleopatra the alchemist,
Pseudodemocritus,
And Austenes.
Other authors,
Such as Comerius and Kymes,
Are known only through surviving fragments of text.
After AD 400,
Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.
By the middle of the 7th century,
Alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.
It was at the time that Khalid ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world,
Facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.
The 2nd millennium BC Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold.
A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a 3rd century AD orthoshastra,
Which provides ingredients of explosives and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains,
And granulated sugar.
Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold.
According to some scholars,
Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy,
But there are no hard evidences to back this claim.
After the fall of the Roman Empire,
The focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic world.
Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented.
Indeed,
Most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.
The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word alchemia.
The early Islamic word was a melting pot for alchemy.
Platonic and Aristotelian thought,
Which had already been somewhat appropriated into Hermetic science,
Continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship.
In the early 700s,
Nadon,
A.
K.
A.
Internal alchemy,
Was adopted by Taoists as a new form of alchemy.
Naden emphasized appeasing the inner gods that inhabit the human body by practicing alchemy with compounds naturally found in the body,
Rather than the mixing of natural resources that was so emphasized in early Tao alchemy.
For example,
Saliva was often considered nourishment for the inner gods and did not require any conscious alchemical reaction to produce.
The inner gods were not thought of as physical presences occupying each person,
But rather a collection of deities that are each said to represent and protect a specific body,
Part,
Or region.
Although those who practiced Nedan prioritized meditation over external alchemical strategies,
Many of the same elixirs and constituents from previous Taoist alchemical schools of thought continue to be utilized in tandem with meditation.
Eternal life remained a consideration for natan alchemists,
As it was believed that one would become immortal if an inner god were to be immortalized within them through spiritual fulfillment.
Roger Bacon,
A Franciscan Order friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics,
Including optics,
Comparative linguistics,
And medicine,
Composed his great work,
Opus Magus,
For Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time.
While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences,
And he did not produce allegorical works on the topic,
He did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology.
And his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology.
Bacon's writings integrated morality,
Salvation,
Alchemy,
And the prolongation of life.
His correspondence with Clement highlighted this,
Noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.
Like the Greeks before him,
Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres.
He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle,
The natural philosophers,
And all Latin writers of his time.
The practical confirmed the theoretical,
And Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.
In later European legend,
He became an archmage.
During the Renaissance,
Hermetic and platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy.
The dawn of medical,
Pharmaceutical,
Occult,
And entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.
In the late 15th century,
Marsilio Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin.
These were previously unavailable to Europeans,
Who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent.
Renaissance humanism and Renaissance neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.
The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science,
With its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for ancient wisdom.
Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century,
Alchemy still flourished for some 200 years,
And in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century.
As late as 1781,
James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold.
Robert Boyle,
1627-1691,
Pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations.
He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data.
Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out,
The wind characteristics,
The position of the sun and moon,
And the barometer reading,
All just in case they proved to be relevant.
This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries,
Based on revolutionary discoveries and ideas of Lavoisier and John Dalton.
Beginning around 1720,
A rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between alchemy and chemistry.
By the 1740s,
Alchemy was now restricted to the realm of gold making,
Leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans,
And the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.
In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected,
Academic writers during the 18th century scientific enlightenment attempted to divorce and separate the new chemistry from the old practices of alchemy.
This move was mostly successful,
And the consequences of this continued into the 19th,
20th,
And 21st centuries.
During the occult revival of the early 19th century,
Alchemy received new attention as an occult science.
The esoteric or occultist school that arose during the 19th century held the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense,
Less than a practical tradition or proto-science.
This interpretation claimed that the obscure language of the alchemical texts,
Which 19th century practitioners were not always able to decipher,
Were an allegorical guise for spiritual,
Moral,
Or mystical processes.
Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy.
Mike O'Meara names four women who were able to make the Philosopher's Stone.
Mary the Jewess,
Cleopatra the Alchemist,
Madeira,
And Tafnusha.
Zosima's sister Thesibia,
Later known as Zethika the Arab,
And Isis,
The prophetess,
Also played roles in early alchemical texts.
Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature,
And the 18th century diffusion of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry,
The general understanding of alchemy in the 19th and 20th centuries was influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.
Those focusing on the exoteric,
Such as historians of science,
Lawrence M.
Principe and William R.
Newman,
Have interpreted the Dekhnamen,
Code words of alchemy,
As physical substances.
These scholars have reconstructed physiochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.
At the opposite end of the spectrum,
Focusing on the esoteric,
Scholars such as Florin George Kalian and Anna-Marie Roos,
Who question the reading of Principe and Newman,
Interpret these same technomen as spiritual,
Religious,
Or psychological concepts.
New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated,
Sometimes merging with concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements.
Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism.
Since the Victorian revival of alchemy,
Occultists reinterpret alchemy as a spiritual practice involving the self-transformation of the practitioner,
And only incidentally,
Or not at all,
The transformation of laboratory substances,
Which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.
In the eyes of a variety of modern esoteric and neo-hermetic practitioners,
Alchemy is primarily spiritual.
In this interpretation,
Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation,
Purification,
And perfection.
Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art,
Evident in both alchemical texts and mainstream entertainment.
Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature,
From William Shakespeare to J.
K.
Rowling,
And also the popular Japanese manga,
Full Metal Alchemist.
Here,
Characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus.
In the 14th century,
Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works,
Such as those of the late Sir Terry Pratchett.
Another literary work inspired by the alchemical tradition is the 1988 novel The Alchemist by Brazilian writer Paulo Coelho.
