Welcome to the I Can't Sleep Podcast,
Where I help you drift off one fact at a time.
I'm your host,
Benjamin Moster.
And today's episode is about cereal.
A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain.
Cereals are the world's largest crops and are therefore staple foods.
They include rice,
Wheat,
Rye,
Oats,
Barley,
Millet,
And maize.
Edible grains from other plant families such as amaranth,
Buckwheat,
And quinoa are pseudo-cereals.
Most cereals are annuals,
Producing one crop from each planting,
Though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial.
Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn,
Becoming dormant in the winter and harvested in spring or early summer.
Spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer.
The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility,
Ceres.
Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic around 8,
000 years ago.
Weed and barley were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent.
Rice and some millets were domesticated in East Asia,
While sorghum and other millets were domesticated in Sudan.
Mays was domesticated by indigenous peoples of the Americas and Mexico about 9,
000 years ago.
In the 20th century,
Cereal productivity was greatly increased by the Green Revolution.
This increase in production has accompanied a growing international trade,
With some countries producing large portions of the cereal supply for other countries.
Wheat,
Barley,
Rye,
And oats were gathered and eaten in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic.
Cereal grains 19,
000 years old have been found in the Ohalo Two-Side in Israel,
With charred remnants of wild wheat and barley.
During the same period,
Farmers in China began to farm rice and millet,
Using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen.
The use of soil conditioners including manure,
Fish,
Compost and ashes.
Appears to have begun early.
And developed independently in areas of the world.
Including Mesopotamia,
The Nile Valley,
And Eastern Asia.
Cereals that became modern barley and wheat were domesticated some 8,
000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent.
Millets and rice were domesticated in East Asia,
While sorghum was domesticated in Sudan.
Maize arose from a single domestication in Mesoamerica about 9,
000 years ago.
In these agricultural regions,
Religion was often shaped by the divinity associated with the grain and harvests.
In the Mesopotamian creation myth.
An era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess Ashnan.
The Roman goddess Ceres presided over agriculture,
Grain crops,
Fertility,
And motherhood.
The term cereal is derived from Latin,
Cerealis,
Of grain.
Originally meaning of the goddess Ceres.
Several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war.
The Hittite sun goddess Severina,
The Canaanite Lamu,
And the Roman Janus.
Complex civilizations arose where cereal agriculture created a surplus,
Allowing for part of the harvest to be appropriated from farmers,
Allowing power to be concentrated in cities.
Between 1964 and 2023,
Cereal production increased by 213%,
Mostly through higher yields.
Harvested area rose only by 10%.
Yields of wheat and rice rose in the Green Revolution,
A technological change funded by development organizations.
The strategies included mechanized tilling,
Monoculture,
Nitrogen fertilizers,
And breeding of new strains of seeds.
These innovations fended off starvation and increased yield per plant,
But paid less attention to nutritional quality.
The high yield cereal crops tend to have low quality proteins.
With essential amino acid deficiencies.
Are high in carbohydrates.
And lack balanced essential fatty acids,
Vitamins and minerals.
So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties.
Grew in popularity with the organic movements of the early 21st century.
But there's a trade-off in yield per plant.
Putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops.
Grain-based foods are fundamental dietary staples in many regions worldwide,
Serving as primary sources of energy and essential nutrients.
Consequently,
Reductions in cereal production are the most significant contributors to losses in energy and essential micronutrients,
Such as iron,
Zinc,
Magnesium,
Phosphorus,
Thiamine,
And riboflavin.
Cereals are grasses in the Boise family that produce edible grains.
A cereal grain is botanically a caryopsis,
A fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp.
Grasses have stems that are hollow except to the nodes and narrow alternate leaves born in two ranks.
The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem,
Forming a leaf sheath.
The leaf grows from the base of the blade,
An adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals.
The flowers are usually hermaphroditic,
With the exception of maize,
And mainly anemophilous or wind-pollinated,
Although insects occasionally play a role.
Among the best known cereals are maize,
Rice,
Wheat,
Barley,
Sorghum,
Millet,
Oat,
Rye,
And triticale.
Some other grains are colloquially called cereals,
Even though they're not grasses.
These pseudoserials include buckwheat,
Quinoa,
And amaranth.
All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way.
Most are annual,
So after sowing they are harvested just once.
An exception is rice,
Which,
Although usually treated as an annual,
Can survive as a perennial,
Producing a ratoon crop.
Cereals adapted to a temperate climate such as barley,
Oats,
Rye,
Spelt,
Triticale,
And wheat are called cool season cereals.
Those preferring a tropical climate,
Such as millet and sorghum,
Are called warm season cereals.
Cool season cereals,
Especially rye,
Followed by barley,
Are hearty.
They grow best in fairly cool weather.
And stop growing depending on variety when the temperature goes above around 30 degrees Celsius.
Warm season cereals,
In contrast,
Require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost.
Cool season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics,
Where they sometimes deliver cereal crops in a single year.
In the tropics,
Warm season cereals can be grown at any time of the year.
In temperate zones these cereals can only be grown when there is no frost.
Most cereals are planted in tilled soils,
Which reduces weeds and breaks up the surface of a field.
Most cereals need regular water in the early part of their life cycle.
Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields,
Though some strains are grown on dry land.
Other warm climate cereals,
Such as sorghum,
Are adapted to arid conditions.
Cool season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones.
These cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing,
Winter dormancy,
And early summer harvesting.
And spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer.
Winter varieties have the advantage of using water when it is plentiful and permitting a second crop after the early harvest.
They flower only in spring as they require vernalization,
Exposure to cold for a specific period,
Fixed genetically.
Spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy,
So they may need irrigation.
Cereal strains are bred for consistency and resilience to the local environmental conditions.
Their greatest constraint on yield are plant diseases,
Especially rusts and powdery mildews.
Fusarium head blight caused by Fusarium graminearum is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals.
Other pressures include pest insects and wildlife like rodents and deer.
In conventional agriculture,
Some farmers apply fungicides or pesticides.
Annual cereals die when they have come to seed and dry up.
Harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough.
Harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by combine harvester.
A machine which drives across the field in a single pass,
In which it cuts the stalks,
And then threshes and winnows a grain.
In traditional agricultural systems,
Mostly in the Global South,
Harvesting may be by hand,
Using tools such as scythes and grain gradles.
Leftover parts of the plan can be allowed to decompose or collected as straw.
This can be used for animal bedding,
Mulch,
And a growing medium for mushrooms.
It is used in crafts such as building with cob or straw bale constructions.
If cereals are not completely dry when harvested,
Such as when the weather is rainy,
The stored grain will be spoiled by mold fungi.
This can be prevented by drying it artificially.
It may then be stored in a grain elevator or silo to be sold later.
Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests,
Such as seed-eating birds and rodents.
When the cereal is ready to be distributed,
It is sold to a manufacturing facility that first removes the outer layers of the grain for subsequent milling for flour.
Or other processing steps.
To produce foods such as flour,
Oatmeal,
Or pearl barley.
In developing countries,
Processing may be traditional.
And artisanal workshops.
As with tortilla production in Central America.
Most cereals can be processed in a variety of ways.
Rice processing,
For instance,
Can create whole grain or polished rice or rice flour.
Removal of the germ increases the longevity of grain and storage.
Some grains can be molted.
A process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying.
These sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing,
Such as for making industrial alcohol,
Beer,
Whiskey,
Or rice wine,
Or sold directly as a sugar.
In the 20th century,
Industrial processes developed around chemically altering the grain to be used for other processes.
In particular,
Maize can be altered to produce food additives such as cornstarch and high fructose corn syrup.
Some cereals,
Such as rice,
Require little preparation before human consumption.
For example,
To make plain cooked rice,
Raw milled rice is washed and boiled.
Foods such as porridge and muesli may be made largely of whole cereals,
Especially oats.
Whereas commercial breakfast cereals such as granola,
May be highly processed and combined with sugars,
Oils,
And other products.
Cereals can be ground to make flour.
Wheat flour is the main ingredient of bread and pasta.
Maize flour has been important in Mesoamerica since ancient times with foods such as Mexican tortillas and tamales.
Rye flour is a constituent of bread in Central and Northern Europe.
While rice flour is common in Asia.
A cereal grain consists of starchy endosperm,
Germ,
And bran.
Wholemeal flour contains all of these.
White flower is without some or all of the germ or bran.
Cereals and their related byproducts,
Such as hay,
Are routinely fed to farm animals.
Common cereals as animal food include maize,
Barley,
Wheat,
And oats.
Most grains may be treated chemically or made into silage.
Mechanically flattened or crimped.
And kept in airtight storage until used,
Or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14%.
Commercially,
Grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets.
As whole grains,
Cereals provide carbohydrates,
Polyunsaturated fats,
Protein,
Vitamins,
And minerals.
When processed by the removal of the bran and germ,
All that remains is the starchy endosperm.
Nutrients added to cereal during nutritional fortification include iron,
Calcium,
Zinc,
And folate.
In some developing countries,
Cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance.
In developed countries,
Cereal consumption is moderate and varied,
But still substantial,
Primarily in the form of refined and processed grains.
Some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine.
Obliging vegetarian cultures to combine their diet of cereal grains with legumes to obtain a balanced diet.
Many legumes,
However,
Are deficient in the essential amino acid methionine.
Which grains contain.
Thus a combination of legumes with grains forms a well-balanced diet for vegetarians.
Some combinations include lentils with rice,
Beans with maize tortillas,
Tofu with rice,
And peanut butter with whole grain wheat bread as sandwiches in several other cultures,
Including the Americas.
For feeding animals,
The amount of crude protein measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration.
Cereals constitute the world's largest commodities by tonnage,
Whether measured by production or by international trade.
Several major producers of cereals dominate the market.
Because of the scale of the trade,
Some countries have become reliant on imports.
The serial's pricing or availability,
Can have outsized impacts on countries with a food trade imbalance,
And thus food security.
Cereals are the world's largest crops by tonnage of grain produced.
Three cereals,
Maize,
Wheat,
And rice,
Together accounted for 91% of all cereal production worldwide.
In 2024.
And 40% of the global availability of food energy in 2023.
While the production of oats and rye has drastically fallen from their 1960s levels.
Other cereals not included in the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization statistics include wild rice,
Which is grown in small amounts in North America,
And teff,
An ancient grain that is a staple in Ethiopia.
Teff is grown in Sub-Saharan Africa as a grass primarily for feeding horses.
It is high in fiber and protein.
Its flour is often used to make injera.
It can be eaten as a warm breakfast cereal,
Like Farina,
With a chocolate or nutty flavor.
Cereals are the most traded commodities by quantity in 2023.
With wheat,
Maize,
And rice,
The main cereals involved.
The Americas and Europe are the largest exporters.
And Asia is the largest importer.
In 2023,
Brazil was the largest exporter of maize,
While India was the largest exporter of rice,
And China the largest importer of maize and of rice.
Many other countries trade cereals,
Both as exporters and as importers.
Cereals are traded as futures on world commodity markets.
Helping to mitigate the risks of changes in price,
For example,
If harvests fail.
A grain is a small,
Hard,
Dry fruit with or without an attached whole layer harvested for human or animal consumption.
A grain crop is a grain-producing plant.
The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes.
After being harvested,
Dry grains are more durable than other staple foods,
Such as starchy fruits and tubers.
This durability has made grains well suited to industrial agriculture.
Since they can be mechanically harvested.
Transported by rail or ship.
Stored for long periods in silos,
And milled for flour or pressed for oil.
The grain market is a major global agricultural market.
It includes crops such as maize,
Rice,
Soybeans,
Wheat,
And other grains.
In the grass family,
A grain narrowly defined as a caryopsis,
A fruit with its wall fused onto the single seed inside,
Belonging to a cereal such as wheat,
Maize,
Or rice.
More broadly,
In agronomy and commerce,
Seeds or fruits from other plant families are called grains if they resemble cereal karyopsis.
For example,
Amaranth is sold as grain amaranth,
And amaranth products may be described as whole grains.
The pre-Columbian civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems.
But at higher elevations,
None of the grains belonged to the cereal family.
All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leaved plants,
Rather than grasses.
Starchy grains from broadleaf plant families are cultivated as nutritious alternatives to cereals.
The three main pseudo-cereal grains are amaranth,
Buckwheat,
And quinoa.
Pulses,
The dried seeds of legumes,
Members of the pea family,
Have a higher protein content than most other plant foods at around 20%.
While soybeans have as much as 35%.
As is the case with all other whole plant foods,
Pulses also contain carbohydrates and fat.
Common pulses include chickpeas,
Common beans,
Common peas,
Fava beans,
Lentils,
Lima beans,
Lupins,
Mung beans,
Peanuts,
Pigeon peas,
Runner beans,
Soybeans.
Oilseed grains are grown primarily for the extraction of their edible oil.
Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids.
They are also used as fuel and lubricants.
Because grains are small,
Hard,
And dry,
They can be stored,
Measured,
And transported more readily than can other kinds of food crops,
Such as fresh fruits,
Roots,
And tubers.
The development of grain agriculture allowed excess food to be produced.
And stored easily,
Which could have led to the creation of the first temporary settlements and the division of society into classes.
This assumption that grain agriculture led to early settlements and social stratification has been challenged by James C.
Scott in his book,
Against the Grain.
He argues that the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agrarian communities was not a voluntary choice driven by the benefits of increased food production due to the long storage potential of grains.
But rather is it the shift towards settlements?
Was a coerced transformation imposed by dominant members of a society.
Seeking to expand control over labor and resources.
The grain trade refers to the local and international trade in cereals such as wheat,
Barley,
Maize,
Rice,
And other food grains.
Grain is an important trade item because it is easily stored and transported,
With limited spoilage.
Unlike other agricultural products.
Healthy grain supply and trade is important to many societies.
Providing a caloric base for most food systems.
As well as an important role in animal feed for animal agriculture.
The grain trade began as early as agricultural settlement,
Identified in many of the early cultures that adopted sedentary farming.
Major societal changes have been directly connected to the grain trade,
Such as the fall of the Roman Empire.
From the early modern period onward,
Grain trade has been an important part of colonial expansion and foreign policy.
The geopolitical dominances of countries like Australia,
The United States,
Canada,
And the Soviet Union during the 20th century was connected with their status as grain surplus countries.
